Mariella
Zoila García Coronel
https://orcid.org/0009-0008-6050-1313
Angela
Maria Dazza Delgado
https://orcid.org/0009-0004-2883-3183
Jorge Andrés Samaniego Orrala
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3452-2806
Reception dates: 01/05/2026
Acceptance date: 15/06/2026
Female entrepreneurship has become an increasingly relevant strategy for promoting social inclusion and economic strengthening among populations exposed to vulnerability and human mobility processes in Latin America. However, many institutional interventions continue to implement self-employment programs without previously identifying whether beneficiaries possess the necessary conditions to sustain entrepreneurial initiatives. In response to this gap, this study aimed to design and apply an Evaluation Model of Entrepreneurial Preparedness (MEPRE-EM) for the female population at social risk linked to human mobility processes in Guayaquil. The research adopted a quantitative approach with a non-experimental and descriptive-propositional design. Data were collected through a Likert-scale questionnaire administered to 236 women registered in a foundation dedicated to entrepreneurial training. The instrument included 30 items grouped into ten dimensions and demonstrated high internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.853). Descriptive statistics and dimensional standardization procedures were used to construct the preparedness index. The results revealed an overall MEPRE-EM score of 66.74 out of 100, placing participants within a favorable level of entrepreneurial preparedness. The highest scores were observed in human capital and economic autonomy, while economic vulnerability, resilience, and innovation showed comparatively lower performance. The findings suggest that prior diagnostic evaluation may contribute to improving institutional decision-making, optimizing resource allocation, and designing differentiated intervention pathways before implementing self-employment programs for vulnerable women.
Keywords: entrepreneurial preparedness, female entrepreneurship, social
vulnerability, human mobility, self-employment
In Latin
America, in recent years, human mobility processes have intensified, generating
new social, economic and labor challenges for receiving cities. Migrant women
in the city of Guayaquil have had difficulty accessing formal employment,
economic stability, productive inclusion, in their condition of social
vulnerability. Faced with this scenario, female entrepreneurship has become a
form of survival and alternative income, especially in sectors of the informal economy
with little availability for employment. Several studies affirm that women's
entrepreneurship is not only an economic mechanism, but also an instrument of
social empowerment and community strengthening, especially in vulnerable and
migrant populations (Finke et al., 2021; Huamán et al., 2022).
In addition, recent studies carried out in Ecuador indicate that women
entrepreneurs face structural constraints related to access to financing,
education, sustainability, and support networks, factors that directly affect
the permanence and success of their economic initiatives (Altamirano et al., 2024; Emilia et al., 2022).
Hence the need to build diagnostic models, which will allow the level of
entrepreneurial preparation to be evaluated beforehand before entering the
vulnerable female population into self-employment and economic empowerment
programs.
The research problem originates in the absence of
technical mechanisms that allow identifying whether women in conditions of
social risk linked to human mobility processes have minimum conditions to
sustain entrepreneurship or self-employment processes (Duarte et al., 2025).
The main causes that follow are the economic vulnerability of this sector of
the population, which is characterized by unstable incomes, economic dependence
on their families and the lack of sustainability of their housing conditions,
elements that affect the continuity of enterprises and the regularity of
financial sustainability for productive activities. As a result, many business
initiatives do not achieve stable income or achieve economic independence (Medina et al., 2021),
in their early stages of evolution, continue their progress. Another important
cause is related to educational limitations and poor development of
entrepreneurial skills, which prevent beneficiaries from structuring
sustainable business models or identifying viable economic opportunities (Hernández et al., 2022).
These problems generate low levels of competitiveness and permanence in
informal local markets (Bastida et al., 2024).
The insufficient evaluation of psychosocial factors
such as resilience, motivation, leadership and community support, gives rise to
generalized intervention processes that do not consider the individual
conditions of the beneficiaries, which causes a low effectiveness of economic
strengthening programs and a lower permanence of self-employment projects (Montiel-Espinosa
& Huerta-Cuervo, 2026). From the theoretical
aspect, the present research is justifiable, due to the requirement to
strengthen scientific knowledge in relation to the multi-disciplinary bases
that affect the entrepreneurial preparation of women in conditions of social
vulnerability and in processes of human relocation (Cunha et al., 2024).
The most recent research indicates that in order to understand female
entrepreneurship, it is necessary to adopt comprehensive approaches that
contemplate economic, sociocultural, emotional, and territorial dimensions,
with special emphasis on communities marked by inequalities and social
exclusion (Osorio-Pascacio et al., 2024; Cruzado et al., 2023).
The study is pertinent, from the methodological point
of view, insofar as it proposes the design of a diagnostic evaluation model
aimed at measuring the level of entrepreneurial preparation before implementing
self-employment programs, which allows classifying risk conditions, capacities
and potentialities of the participants (Arbulu et al., 2024).
This approach promotes evidence-based decision-making and consolidates the
construction of instruments applicable to social and community projects (Molina et al., 2025).
Well, then, from practice, the research will provide a useful tool to public
institutions, social organizations and university extension programs, which
work with vulnerable women (listening platforms, to accompany a woman in a
situation of violence), facilitating more effective and sustainable orientation
processes over time. It will also contribute to strengthening strategies for
women's economic inclusion and the reduction of social vulnerability in complex
urban contexts (Pérez et al., 2025).
The object of study in the research is the evaluation
model of entrepreneurial readiness; applied in contexts of social vulnerability
and human mobility. This model does not intend to address the socio-economic,
educational, psychological, and entrepreneurial dimensions, but rather serves
to diagnose the level of preparation of the beneficiaries before incorporating
their productive economy and self-employment programs. The study population is
made up of women linked to processes of human mobility and social risk in the
city of Guayaquil, specifically those who are beneficiaries of entrepreneurship
orientation and economic integration programs. These participants have
characteristics associated with job instability, economic limitations and the
need to generate income on their own, conditions that make entrepreneurship a
relevant strategy for their productive inclusion and social sustainability. The
general objective of the research is to design a model for the evaluation of
entrepreneurial readiness for the female population at social risk linked to
human mobility processes in the city of Guayaquil. I. To identify the
theoretical basis on human mobility, social vulnerability, and women's
entrepreneurship through peer-reviewed theoretical articles. II. To establish
the factors that influence women's business preparation through quantitative
techniques aimed at socioeconomic diagnosis. III. To validate a diagnostic
evaluation model (instrument) that recognizes the levels of entrepreneurial
preparation in the vulnerable female population, in order to strengthen the
training processes in self-direction towards self-satisfaction.
Economic
vulnerability is one of the key elements related to female entrepreneurship in
contexts of social marginalization and human mobility. Several studies have
shown that women at risk have a harder time getting financial resources, stable
jobs and long-term productive prospects, which directly affects their ability
to start their own business. In Ecuador, family income, availability of finance
and socioeconomic environment were found to be significant factors in the
consolidation of women-led initiatives, especially in metropolitan areas with
social. Using a quantitative approach based on multivariate analysis, the
authors concluded that the degree of sustainability of female entrepreneurship
is defined by the structural characteristics of the environment (Altamirano et al., 2024).
Likewise, Finke et al. (2021) examined the relationship
between poverty, entrepreneurship and female empowerment in Colombia. They
showed that entrepreneurship is a useful tool to reduce economic vulnerability
by a correlational quantitative method, but they also stated that the absence
of previous diagnostic programs limits the effectiveness of fruitful efforts.
The results are in line with Duarte et al. (2025)
who found in Mexico that the economic stability achieved through sustainable
independent enterprises directly impacts the family well-being of female
entrepreneurs. The researchers found that women-led companies are much more
likely to survive over the long term if they do their financial and
administrative planning in advance.
Using a descriptive approach, Emilia et al. (2022)
analyzed the role of female entrepreneurship in local development with urban
women entrepreneurs in Ecuador. The results showed that female entrepreneurship
was positive for the local economy, but also the problems of informal labor,
lack of proper training and economic dependence of the family. This fact is
consistent with the findings of Medina et al. (2021) who investigated the
initiatives of women's empowerment in rural and urban areas of Latacunga canton
and concluded that the most economically vulnerable women have difficulties in
establishing long-term productive endeavors. Both studies show the importance
of developing evaluation systems that allow one to determine minimal
requirements before starting self-employment procedures.
Similarly, Molina et al. (2025) studied the effect of
female entrepreneurship on rural development in Ecuador using a territorial
method. Their findings revealed that sustainability of women-owned enterprises
is dependent on factors related to availability of resources, institutional
support and financial readiness. On the other hand, Koller et al. (2021)
found that economic empowerment increases when there are prior skills in
decision making in management, organization and finance in the microenterprises
managed by women in Lima. Both researches agree that it is necessary to assess
in depth the economic vulnerability to avoid unsustainable processes of
entrepreneurship in socially vulnerable communities.
Human capital is
a significant component in the models of entrepreneurial training since it
entails the information, abilities and skills required for the development of
sustainable economic endeavors. Hernández et al. (2022) carried out a
quantitative methodology using women from different urban settings to study the
sociocultural aspects of female entrepreneurship in Mexico. The authors found
that social skills, work experience, and educational attainment all directly
influence entrepreneurial ambition and the capacity to stay in companies run by
women. They also found that technical and administrative training is one of the
most important factors in decreasing the chances of business failure in risky
situations.
In a similar vein, Silva &
Karpinski (2021) developed a predictive
study on female entrepreneurship among university students in Peru. They used
multivariate statistical analysis and found that the desire to become an
entrepreneur correlated highly with leadership, innovation, and financial planning
skills. Although the research was conducted in a university setting, the
conclusions of the research are related to the understanding of how training
abilities affect the readiness of women for entrepreneurship. In a related
study, Bastida et al. (2024)
identified the need for the ability for sustainable entrepreneurial ambitions
that are directly related to human capital such as fiscal responsibility,
autonomy, and strategic vision. However, Huamán et al. (2022) performed a
comparison between Chile and Peru, with a focus on female entrepreneurship with
high impact. The researchers concluded that women had higher rates of business
growth and economic sustainability when they have higher levels of technical
know-how and administrative skills. These results are in line with the
methodology of Koller et al. (2021), who studied female digital
entrepreneurship in Spain and concluded that the competitiveness of companies
run by women is seriously limited by educational and technological barriers. As
both researches stated, development of human capital should be included in
every model of entrepreneurial evaluation.
On the other hand, Rodríguez-Olay (2021)
studied the technological approaches for female youth entrepreneurship and
found that the use of digital tools favors economic autonomy and creative
capabilities. In both studies, the focus is on the development of technical and
digital skills adapted to the economic dynamics of today to be prepared for
entrepreneurship, authors studied the link between service-learning and female
entrepreneurship promotion in rural areas through educational actions based on
information technology. They showed how contextual training processes improve
decision-making, leadership, and organizational capacities.
The resilience
and empowerment of women have acquired relevance in study on entrepreneurship
in vulnerable environments due to their association with the ability to
confront economic crises, social exclusion and structural injustice. Montiel-Espinosa
& Huerta-Cuervo (2026) analyze the experiences of
women entrepreneurs from an approach of economic resistance and social
empowerment. They concluded that women with higher levels of emotional
resilience have superior capacities to sustain productive activities in the
face of bad scenarios, using interviews and qualitative analysis. The authors
point out that variables such as self-esteem, social support and perception of
autonomy are relevant for the consolidation of female entrepreneurship.
Infantes et al. (2023) in
Lima explored the link between entrepreneurship and female youth empowerment
through a quantitative methodology on young women. Their findings indicated
that involvement in entrepreneurial activities enhanced the perception of
economic independence, leadership and decision-making skills. Similarly, Cruzado et al. (2023)
pointed out that public policies for female entrepreneurship should include
human and social dimensions in addition to financial aspects, because human
development is a crucial part to increase entrepreneurial sustainability in
vulnerable women.
Cunha et al. (2024) suggested an integrative framework
for the study of female immigrant entrepreneurship and found that migrant women
encounter obstacles of discrimination, labor exclusion and institutional
weakness. The authors believe that entrepreneurial evaluation models should
include elements of cultural adaptability, emotional stability and social
support networks. This position is consistent with Aouad et al. (2025)
who researched female digital entrepreneurship in Morocco and found that
institutional gaps and limits in access to technology had a negative impact on
the entrepreneurial capabilities of vulnerable women. Both publications are
notably useful for study on human mobility and social risk.
Lastly, Osorio-Pascacio et al (2024)
performed a systematic review of female leadership and entrepreneurship in the
period 2019-2023. The authors found that in the explanatory models of female
entrepreneurship, current studies have started to include psychosocial factors
such as leadership, resilience, innovation and economic autonomy. They also
found that approaches that are multidimensional generate superior results in
the understanding of the complexity of entrepreneurial processes in situations
of vulnerability. These findings highlight the necessity for designing
comprehensive diagnostic models that would be able to evaluate not just
economic capacity, but also emotional, social and cultural elements related to
female entrepreneurial preparedness.
Women's
leadership is one of the most important entrepreneurial skills in the processes
of economic inclusion and social empowerment of vulnerable women. Research has
found that women in leadership qualities have increased levels of financial
autonomy, business sustainability and community engagement. In the study by
Pérez et al. (2025), authors performed a quantitative analysis of women-led
manufacturing microenterprises in Lima and found that entrepreneurial leadership
has a positive impact on the economic empowerment and organizational stability
of businesses. According to the authors, women with high organizational and
decision-making abilities have better business permanency, even in challenging
economic conditions. Along these lines, Millán et al. (2026)
studied female leadership in firms in emerging economies and discovered that
women entrepreneurs face challenges in terms of limited access to capital,
social prejudices and structural inequalities. But the study also found that
women with good strategic leadership skills were more likely to survive in
business. These results are consistent with those of Duarte et al. (2025)
who found that the economic autonomy of women has positive impacts on the
family stability and the elimination of conditions of social dependence. Thus,
the development of entrepreneurial capacities must consider the leadership as a
key dimension in the models of preparation for entrepreneurship.
Infantes et al. (2023) state that female
entrepreneurship promotes the development of skills like independence,
self-confidence and negotiation skills. The authors study applied to young
Peruvian entrepreneurs concluded that improving leadership greatly enhances the
perception of self-efficacy and economic autonomy. These findings are
consistent with the study conducted by Huamán et al. (2022) who stated that
successful women entrepreneurs had high levels of self-management and capacity
to adapt to economic and social changes. Both findings support the inclusion of
leadership indicators in diagnostic models for the support of disadvantaged
women.
In Ecuador, Altamirano et al. (2024)
found that female leadership is shaped by environmental and cultural factors
that affect women's access to sustainable economic opportunities. The authors
showed that women entrepreneurs with support networks and follow-up of
institutions acquire better leadership skills and commercial permanency. It is
also important to evaluate, not only the individual elements, but the
contextual variables related to social inclusion and access to productive
resources to strengthen entrepreneurial capacities.
Innovation is
another key component of entrepreneurial skills because it contributes to the
competitiveness and sustainability of women-led enterprises. Martínez &
Medina (2025) carried out a quantitative analysis of innovation elements in
female entrepreneurship based on perception of opportunities and
digitalization. The findings have demonstrated that women with higher inventive
talents have higher levels of economic growth and adaptation to changing
settings. The authors mentioned that innovation should be seen as a strategic
talent related to creativity, problem solving and the use of technology
resources.
Tiburcio et al. (2026)
explored the digitalisation of companies from the point of view of female
entrepreneurship through a grounded theory. Digital skills have a big effect on
business sustainability, especially in times of economic weakness, the study
found. The results are in line with those obtained by Koller et al. (2021), who
identified digital and technological limitations that hinder the development of
female entrepreneurship in Spain. Both authors in the research state that
technological innovation is an important element to enhance entrepreneurial
capacities and reduce economic inequality.
In contrast, Bastida et al. (2024)
proposed that women who pay attention to social sustainability have higher
entrepreneurial ambition and enhanced levels of business commitment. They
performed a quantitative analysis on social economy firms, finding that
entrepreneurial sustainability depended on issues like social responsibility,
strategic planning and economic adaptation. Similarly, Velázquez-Castro et al. (2025)
provided a research agenda on circular economy and women entrepreneurship in
rural communities, stating that productive sustainability involves the
integration of innovation, local use and community strengthening.
Molina et al. (2025) found that in Ecuador, female
firms with a territorial focus have better levels of sustainability when women
have capacities related to innovation and community management. The authors
said that the entrepreneurial capacities building should be oriented toward
comprehensive models that can promote economic sovereignty and local
development at the same time. These approaches are relevant for the
construction of diagnostic evaluation models for women under conditions of
human mobility and social vulnerability.
In the context
of economic exclusion and human mobility, public policies play a crucial role
in the empowerment of women entrepreneurs. Cruzado et al., (2023) applied a
descriptive methodology to evaluate the association between female
entrepreneurship, human development and public policies in Peru. The results
indicate that governmental measures focused at fostering entrepreneurship has
favorable effects on social inclusion and the decrease of poverty in women. The
authors nonetheless indicated that many programs do not have diagnostic
evaluation methods that allow the identification of the real needs of the
recipients before starting the training or financing processes.
Likewise, Nicolás et al., (2021),
in a study of governmental policies targeted at fostering rural female
entrepreneurship in Murcia, found that institutional support contributes to a
considerable improvement in the organizational and economic capacities of women
entrepreneurs. The researchers underlined that the most effective approaches
are those that include prior evaluation, contextualized instruction and ongoing
technical monitoring. This position is consistent with that of Aranzana and
Sánchez (2021) who pointed out that policies for women's entrepreneurship
should be adapted to the social and territorial features of the beneficiaries
to guarantee economic sustainability and business permanence.
In terms of human mobility, Cunha et al. (2024) note
that migratory women face more challenges in establishing businesses due to
cultural, institutional and labour restrictions. The authors suggested that
entrepreneurial preparation models should take into account elements linked to
social integration, emotional stability and community networks, through an
integrative framework on immigrant female entrepreneurship. This reality is
accompanied by the results from Aouad et al. (2025) who found that the restrictions
for vulnerable women entrepreneurs are linked to access to technology,
informality and institutional inadequacy.
Frende &
Salgado-Canto (2024) performed a bibliometric
analysis of 23 years of research on female entrepreneurship and business
growth. The authors stated that contemporary research has shifted to
multidimensional methodologies integrating economic, social and psychological
elements. They also noted a notable surge in studies focused on female
vulnerability, social inclusion and human mobility, particularly in Latin
American countries. The results obtained confirm the scientific pertinence of
this study and reinforce the necessity to construct diagnostic models that
allow a global assessment of the entrepreneurial preparation of women at social
risk.
The research was produced from a
quantitative approach because it intended to quantify, in an objective way, the
dimensions connected with entrepreneurial readiness in the female population at
social risk linked to human mobility processes in Guayaquil. The design was
non-experimental, cross-sectional and descriptive-propositional in scope, so
variables were not altered, but socioeconomic, formative and entrepreneurial
contexts were specified to establish a diagnostic evaluation model. This
methodological decision is justified by the fact that studies on female
entrepreneurship have used structured measurements to identify predictive
factors, barriers, capacities and sustainability conditions, especially on
vulnerable and Latin American populations (Altamirano et al., 2024).
The study population was made up
of women linked to entrepreneurial training processes and economic
strengthening in the city of Guayaquil. For the development of the research, we
worked with a sample of 236 women registered in a foundation dedicated to the
training and accompaniment of women entrepreneurs, who voluntarily participated
by answering the questionnaire designed to evaluate the level of
entrepreneurial preparation.
Because access to the participants was conditioned by institutional
availability and voluntary participation, a non-probabilistic sampling was
applied for convenience. This type of selection is considered pertinent in
research aimed at the design and initial validation of instruments when the
main objective is to identify relationships between dimensions and to verify
the statistical behavior of the proposed model before future population
applications.
The number of 236 participants was considered sufficient for the
application of the instrument because the methodological literature recommends
having at least between five and ten observations per item when exploratory
factor analysis is intended. Considering that the MEPRE-EM instrument was made
up of 30 items, the sample size exceeded the minimum recommended for initial
structural validation studies.
The internal consistency of the instrument was estimated using
Cronbach's alpha coefficient, obtaining an expected value of 0.89, interpreted
as a high level of reliability and suitable for applied social research.
Subsequently, the internal structure of the instrument can be evaluated by
exploratory factor analysis and, at a later stage, by structural equation
models.
The data will be processed using
SPSS and Jamovi through sequential statistical procedures aligned with the
objective of validating the proposed evaluation model. Initially, descriptive
statistics will be applied to characterize the sample and summarize the
behavior of the dimensions through frequencies, percentages, means and standard
deviations. Subsequently, the internal consistency of the instrument will be
assessed using Cronbach's alpha coefficient, considering values equal to or
greater than 0.70 as acceptable for social science research and values close to
0.90 as indicative of high reliability.
Once reliability is verified, an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) will
be conducted in Jamovi to examine the internal structure of the instrument and
identify the grouping of items according to the theoretical dimensions proposed
in the MEPRE-EM model. Prior to factor extraction, sampling adequacy will be
evaluated using the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) index and Bartlett's test of
sphericity. After confirming construct validity, correlational analysis using
Pearson's coefficient will be applied to identify associations between
entrepreneurial preparation and entrepreneurial capacity strengthening
according to data distribution and scale characteristics.
Finally, as a subsequent stage of model consolidation, the study
proposes the future application of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) using
AMOS to confirm the theoretical relationships between latent variables and
evaluate model fit through indicators such as RMSEA, CFI, TLI and SRMR,
following recent approaches in predictive and multidimensional studies on
female entrepreneurship, leadership, innovation and sustainability
(Osorio-Pascacio et al., 2024; Frende Vega
& Salgado-Canto, 2024; Martínez & Medina, 2025).
To validate the research instrument, an exploratory factor analysis
(AFE) will be used, since this technique will allow us to identify the internal
structure of the dimensions related to the model of assessment of
entrepreneurial preparedness and to verify the grouping of the items according
to the proposed theoretical constructs. Factor analysis is relevant for
quantitative studies directed to the design and validation of social
instruments, especially when it is aimed at measuring multidimensional variables
related to vulnerability, resilience, leadership and entrepreneurial
sustainability (Osorio-Pascacio et al., 2024; Frende Vega & Salgado-Canto,
2024). Statistical indicators will be employed to assess the adequacy of the
factor model, such as the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin index (KMO) and the Bartlett
sphericity test. Subsequently, in a higher validation phase and with a larger
sample, it is projected the application of structural equation models (SEM)
through the AMOS program, with the intention of confirming the causal
relationships between dimensions and setting the degree of fit of the
theoretical model proposed, considering the indices such as RMSEA, CFI, TLI and
SRMR, which are widely used in current
research on entrepreneurship and social behavior (Martínez & Medina, 2025;
Huamán et al., 2022).
Table 1. Operationalization
|
Variable |
Dimension |
Contextual
definition |
Reference |
|
Entrepreneurial
readiness assessment model |
Economic
vulnerability |
Material
condition that limits the ability to start or sustain an economic activity on
one's own account. |
Altamirano
Aguirre et al. (2024); Finke et al. (2021) |
|
Personal
resilience |
Ability
to face economic, social and family difficulties without abandoning the
productive project. |
Montiel-Espinosa
& Huerta-Cuervo (2026) |
|
|
Human
capital |
A
set of knowledge, education, work experience and useful skills for
entrepreneurship. |
Hernández et al. (2022); Huamán et al. (2022) |
|
|
Social
support |
Family,
community or institutional networks facilitate the permanence of the
enterprise. |
Cunha
et al. (2024); Aouad et al. (2025) |
|
|
Sustainability
of self-employment |
A
condition that allows an economic activity to be maintained over time with
resources, organization and market. |
Bastida
et al. (2024); Molina Barzola et al. (2025) |
|
|
Strengthening
entrepreneurial capacities |
Leadership |
Ability
to make decisions, guide actions and assume responsibility for the business. |
Pérez Ramos et al. (2025); Infantes et al. (2023) |
|
Economic
autonomy |
Ability
to generate own income and reduce economic dependence on third parties. |
Duarte
et al. (2025); Finke et al. (2021) |
|
|
Planning |
Ability
to order goals, resources, costs, times and activities of an enterprise. |
Marco
Agustín et al. (2024) |
|
|
Innovation |
Ability
to propose improvements, differentiate products or services and adapt to the
environment. |
Martínez & Medina (2025); Koller et al. (2021) |
|
|
Self-management |
Ability
to organize resources, time, responsibilities and actions without permanent
supervision. |
Huamán et al. (2022); Cruzado et al. (2023) |
Note: The measurement scale is based on 1 total disagree and 5 strongly agree.
Source: Own elaboration
The MEPRE-MS Model was structured as a
composite index of multidimensional evaluation aimed at measuring the level of
entrepreneurial preparation in the female population in a situation of social
risk linked to human mobility processes. The construction of the model
simultaneously considered an independent variable called the entrepreneurial
readiness assessment model and a dependent variable called entrepreneurial
capacity strengthening. Both variables were operationalized in five dimensions
each, making up a total of ten evaluative dimensions.
Since the instrument is
still in the initial stage of validation and empirical factor loads derived
from factor analysis or structural equations are not available, a uniform
weighting criterion was applied. Consequently, each dimension received the same
relative weight within the total index. Considering that the model is composed of ten
dimensions (Table 1):
Each
dimension therefore contributes a maximum of 10 points to the overall index.
The mathematical expression of the model was defined as:
·
·
Each dimension is calculated by:
·
·
·
10: Weight assigned to each
dimension
The level classification of the MEPRE-MS model was constructed by equal intervals on a standardized scale from 0 to 100 points. Each of the five levels represents a twenty-point range that facilitates the interpretation of the level of entrepreneurial preparation observed in the participants. The categorization does not intend to establish clinical diagnoses or classifications of social risk, but to identify the relative degree of preparation to participate in processes of entrepreneurial strengthening and orientation to self-employment. Obtaining a total score between 0 and 100. To interpret the result, five diagnostic levels were established:
Table 2. Entrepreneurship Readiness Levels Score
|
Score |
Level |
|
0–20 |
Extremely low entrepreneurial preparation |
|
21–40 |
Low entrepreneurial readiness |
|
41–60 |
Moderate entrepreneurial preparation |
|
61–80 |
Favorable entrepreneurial preparation |
|
81–100 |
High entrepreneurial preparation |
Source: Own elaboration
Note: This procedure will allow both the initial conditions of vulnerability and the potential level of development of entrepreneurial capacities to be integrated into a single diagnostic index.
The approach employed was the survey and the instrument was a
questionnaire with a five-point Likert scale, aimed at measuring economic
vulnerability, resilience, human capital, social support, sustainability,
leadership, autonomy, planning, innovation and self-management. The population
under study was constituted by women linked to human mobility processes, social
risk and orientation for self-employment in Guayaquil, having as a precedent
the socioeconomic report of the economic integration project carried out with
beneficiaries assigned by HIAS Poject Ecuador, a
non-profitable organization. The report shows that the direct beneficiaries
were women of the human mobility population and local, these were selected to
engage in a process of information gathering and evaluation of productive
needs.
Table 3. Coded items
|
Code |
Dimension |
Item |
|
VE1 |
Economic vulnerability |
My current income allows me to cover basic needs and think about entrepreneurship. |
|
VE2 |
I have sufficient economic stability to start a productive activity. |
|
|
VE3 |
I have the minimum resources to sustain a business during its early stages. |
|
|
RP1 |
Personal resilience |
I maintain my goals even when I face financial difficulties. |
|
RP2 |
I adapt easily to unexpected changes in my personal or work situation. |
|
|
RP3 |
I believe that I can recover when an economic activity does not work as I expected. |
|
|
CH1 |
Human capital |
I consider that I have useful knowledge to manage an economic activity. |
|
CH2 |
My previous experience can help me develop a business. |
|
|
CH3 |
I feel prepared to learn new business-related skills. |
|
|
AS1 |
Social support |
I have people close to me who will support me if I decide to become an entrepreneur. |
|
AS2 |
I know institutions or programs that could guide me to start a business. |
|
|
AS3 |
I believe that I have sufficient support to maintain economic activity. |
|
|
SA1 |
Sustainability of self-employment |
I think I could sustain a business for several months. |
|
SA2 |
I have the capacity to organize resources and continue economic activity. |
|
|
SA3 |
I believe my environment supports the long-term sustainability of a business. |
|
|
LI1 |
Leadership |
I feel capable of making decisions related to an economic activity. |
|
LI2 |
I can organize people or activities to achieve productive goals. |
|
|
LI3 |
I believe that I can lead an economic initiative of my own. |
|
|
AE1 |
Economic autonomy |
Entrepreneurship can help me become less financially dependent on other people. |
|
AE2 |
I feel able to generate income through my own work. |
|
|
AE3 |
I believe that I can support myself financially with an independent activity. |
|
|
PL1 |
Planning |
I could define realistic economic goals. |
|
PL2 |
I meticulously organize time and resources to meet objectives. |
|
|
PL3 |
Before starting an economic activity, I usually plan my actions. |
|
|
IN1 |
Innovation |
I frequently propose new ideas to improve economic activities. |
|
IN2 |
I look for alternatives when economic difficulties arise. |
|
|
IN3 |
I consider myself a person open to change and new opportunities. |
|
|
AU1 |
Self-management |
I can fulfill responsibilities without permanent supervision. |
|
AU2 |
I can organize my daily activities autonomously. |
|
|
AU3 |
I maintain discipline to achieve personal economic goals. |
Source: Own elaboration
Table 4
presents the results obtained through the application of the Entrepreneurial
Readiness Assessment Model (MEPRE-EM), built to measure the level of
entrepreneurial readiness in the female population linked to processes of human
mobility and social vulnerability. The index was calculated from ten dimensions
grouped into two variables: entrepreneurial readiness assessment model and
entrepreneurial capacity building. Each dimension was made up of three items
assessed using a five-category Likert scale and then transformed to a
standardized scale from 0 to 10 to facilitate comparison between components.
The results
show that all dimensions obtained scores above 6 points, indicating homogeneous
behavior and a favorable general perception regarding the necessary conditions
to develop entrepreneurial processes. The dimensions with the highest scores
were human capital (6.83) and economic autonomy (6.83), evidence that the
participants perceive strengths related to knowledge, experience, learning and
ability to generate income through independent activities. These findings
suggest that the evaluated group presents positive conditions to assume
economic strengthening processes and develop initiatives aimed at
self-employment.
In a
complementary way, dimensions such as planning (6.77), sustainability of
self-employment (6.73) and leadership (6.68) also registered high values,
reflecting skills associated with organization, continuity of economic
activities and decision-making. This behavior allows us to infer that the
participants have a favorable functional base to join entrepreneurial
orientation programs, although they still require technical support and
progressive strengthening to consolidate these capacities in real entrepreneurship
scenarios.
On the
other hand, the dimensions with the lowest relative score corresponded to
economic vulnerability (6.49), personal resilience (6.57) and innovation
(6.59). Although these dimensions remain within the favorable level, their
results suggest opportunities for improvement related to economic stability,
adaptation to adverse contexts, and generation of new productive alternatives.
These findings allow us to interpret that entrepreneurial preparation does not
depend exclusively on personal skills, but also on structural and social
conditions that can influence the future sustainability of enterprises.
Finally,
the model's global index reached a value of 66.74 points out of 100,
classifying it within the level of favorable entrepreneurial preparation. This
result indicates that, on average, the participants present adequate initial
conditions to participate in processes of economic strengthening and
orientation to self-employment. However, the result does not imply full
preparation or guarantee of entrepreneurial success, but rather a positive
disposition that requires complementary processes of training, monitoring and
institutional support to consolidate capacities and promote long-term economic
sustainability.
Table 4. Calculation of MEPRE EM
|
Dimension |
Items |
Half-dimensional |
Development of the calculation |
Score 0–10 |
Level |
|
Economic vulnerability |
VE1–VE3 |
3.25 |
(3.25 ÷ 5) × 10 |
6.49 |
Favorable |
|
Personal resilience |
RP1–RP3 |
3.28 |
(3.28 ÷ 5) × 10 |
6.57 |
Favorable |
|
Human capital |
CH1–CH3 |
3.42 |
(3.42 ÷ 5) × 10 |
6.83 |
Favorable |
|
Social support |
AS1–AS3 |
3.29 |
(3.29 ÷ 5) × 10 |
6.59 |
Favorable |
|
Sustainability of self-employment |
SA1–SA3 |
3.36 |
(3.36 ÷ 5) × 10 |
6.73 |
Favorable |
|
Leadership |
LI1–LI3 |
3.34 |
(3.34 ÷ 5) × 10 |
6.68 |
Favorable |
|
Economic autonomy |
AE1–AE3 |
3.42 |
(3.42 ÷ 5) × 10 |
6.83 |
Favorable |
|
Planning |
PL1–PL3 |
3.39 |
(3.39 ÷ 5) × 10 |
6.77 |
Favorable |
|
Innovation |
IN1–IN3 |
3.30 |
(3.30 ÷ 5) × 10 |
6.59 |
Favorable |
|
Self-management |
AU1–AU3 |
3.33 |
(3.33 ÷ 5) × 10 |
6.66 |
Favorable |
|
MEPRE-MS Global Index |
30 items |
3.34 |
Σ(Dimension 1–10) |
66.74/100 |
Favorable preparation |
Source: Surveys carried out on women interested in entrepreneurship
The main
finding of the study shows that the Entrepreneurial Readiness Assessment Model
(MEPRE-EM) made it possible to identify a favorable overall level of
entrepreneurial readiness (66.74/100) in the evaluated female population linked
to processes of human mobility and social vulnerability in Guayaquil. This
result indicates that the participants present positive initial conditions to
join economic strengthening programs and orientation to self-employment;
however, the dimensional behavior shows that entrepreneurial preparation is not
evenly distributed among all the factors evaluated. From this perspective, the
main contribution of the study is not only to classify the participants, but
also to demonstrate the usefulness of a diagnostic model that allows guiding
institutional decisions before implementing training or social investment
processes.
One of the
most relevant findings corresponds to the dimensions of human capital (6.83)
and economic autonomy (6.83), which registered the highest values of the model.
These results coincide with Altamirano Aguirre et al. (2024), who argue that
female entrepreneurial preparation depends on the development of knowledge,
previous experience, and the ability to adapt economically. Likewise, Huamán et
al. (2022) concluded that sustainable female entrepreneurship is associated
with adequate levels of training and acquisition of skills oriented to economic
management. The results obtained in this research suggest that the participants
have a base of personal and work capacities that favor the development of
productive initiatives, a situation that represents a strategic opportunity for
support organizations to move from schemes focused only on basic training to
processes aimed at consolidation, scaling and sustainability of enterprises.
In relation
to the dimension of economic autonomy, the results are also consistent with the
approaches of Finke et al. (2021), who demonstrated that female
entrepreneurship acts as a mechanism for empowerment and reduction of economic
vulnerability. Similarly, Duarte et al. (2025) pointed out that autonomous
income generation produces positive effects on family stability and
strengthening the female economic role. Under this logic, the favorable result
observed in the present research suggests that the participants perceive
entrepreneurship as a viable alternative to improve their living conditions.
From a managerial perspective, this finding allows us to recommend that
foundations and support programs direct efforts towards business incubation,
technical support and strengthening of commercial networks, instead of
concentrating resources exclusively on introductory awareness processes.
However,
the model also made it possible to identify dimensions with lower relative
scores, particularly economic vulnerability (6.49), personal resilience (6.57)
and innovation (6.59). Although these dimensions remained within the favorable
range, their results show that there are still structural and personal
limitations that could affect the sustainability of the ventures. This behavior
coincides with Medina et al. (2021), who identified that initial economic
conditions continue to be one of the main factors of female business
abandonment. Similarly, Montiel-Espinosa and Huerta-Cuervo (2026) argue that
resilience is a critical capacity to face scenarios of economic uncertainty and
sustain entrepreneurial processes in vulnerable contexts. From an institutional
point of view, these results suggest that future interventions should
incorporate psychosocial support, financial education, and strategies aimed at
reducing vulnerabilities prior to the initiation of self-employment.
Regarding
the innovation dimension, the results obtained show similarities with Martínez
and Medina (2025), who concluded that women entrepreneurs tend to have
strengths in execution and commitment, but lower levels of innovation and
differentiation of productive proposals. Likewise, Koller et al. (2021) pointed
out that restrictions on access to technological tools and training processes
limit the ability to generate sustainable competitive advantages. Consequently,
the finding obtained in this research allows us to propose that programs aimed
at women linked to human mobility incorporate content related to applied
creativity, value proposition design, digitalization and commercial adaptation,
strengthening capacities beyond the immediate generation of income.
Another
relevant aspect of the research corresponds to the methodological approach
adopted. Unlike previous studies that only evaluate post-entrepreneurship
economic results, this study proposes a model aimed at measuring
entrepreneurial readiness prior to the intervention. This perspective is
related to the approaches of Osorio-Pascacio et al. (2024), who point out that
contemporary research on female entrepreneurship is migrating from descriptive
approaches to multidimensional models capable of anticipating behaviors and
supporting institutional decisions. Similarly, Frende Vega and Salgado-Canto
(2024) identified a growing international trend towards the development of
diagnostic instruments to understand complex phenomena related to
entrepreneurship and sustainability.
Finally,
the study shows that the prior evaluation of entrepreneurial capacities can
become a strategic tool for foundations and organizations that work with
vulnerable populations. The results suggest that applying diagnostic models
such as MEPRE-EM would allow segmenting beneficiaries according to levels of
preparation, allocating resources more efficiently, and designing
differentiated routes for economic strengthening. Consequently, the
contribution of the study transcends the academic field and proposes a
practical alternative to improve the effectiveness of self-employment programs
aimed at women in contexts of human mobility and social vulnerability in
Guayaquil.
The
research allowed the design and application of the Entrepreneurial Readiness
Assessment Model (MEPRE-EM) as a diagnostic tool aimed at identifying the level
of entrepreneurial preparation in the female population linked to processes of
human mobility and social vulnerability in Guayaquil. The results showed that
the model managed to integrate economic, social, personal and entrepreneurial
dimensions within a single evaluation structure, allowing them to overcome
traditional approaches focused exclusively on post-entrepreneurship economic
indicators. In this sense, the study shows that assessing preconditions of
preparation is a useful strategy to improve the targeting of programs aimed at
economic strengthening and self-employment.
In relation
to the first specific objective, it is concluded that the theoretical review
confirmed that female entrepreneurship in contexts of vulnerability should be
understood as a multidimensional phenomenon where factors associated with human
capital, economic autonomy, social support, resilience and sustainability of
self-employment intervene simultaneously. The literature reviewed showed that
entrepreneurial success does not depend only on individual capacities, but also
on structural and contextual conditions that influence the permanence and
consolidation of economic activities led by women.
Regarding
the second specific objective, it is concluded that the selected dimensions and
indicators allowed the construction of an instrument with the capacity to
adequately represent the concept of entrepreneurial preparation. The
application of the questionnaire evidenced consistent levels of response among
participants and allowed obtaining a high reliability of the instrument through
a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.853, a result that supports the internal
stability of the model and its potential use in processes of social diagnosis
and entrepreneurial strengthening.
Regarding
the third specific objective, it is concluded that the global index obtained
through the MEPRE-EM model reached a value of 66.74 points out of 100,
classifying the evaluated population within the level of favorable
entrepreneurial preparation. This result indicates that the participants
present positive initial conditions to join economic strengthening programs and
orientation to self-employment; however, the analysis by dimensions made it
possible to identify opportunities for improvement, particularly in aspects
related to economic vulnerability, resilience and innovation, which shows the
need to maintain complementary processes of accompaniment and strengthening.
In general,
it is concluded that the main contribution of the study is not only to measure
entrepreneurial capacities, but also to demonstrate that the incorporation of
previous diagnostic models can contribute to optimizing institutional decisions
within foundations and social programs aimed at women in vulnerable situations.
The application of the MEPRE-MS model offers an alternative to classify levels
of preparedness, direct resources and design differentiated intervention routes
before promoting self-employment initiatives, thus strengthening the
sustainability of the actions undertaken and increasing the potential for
social impact of economic support programs.
Altamirano, M. L., Salazar, A. C., & Riofrío, A. E. (2024). Determining factors of female
entrepreneurship in Ecuador: An individual and environmental perspective. European
Public and Social Innovation Review, 9. Scopus.
https://doi.org/10.31637/epsir-2024-1037
Aouad,
A., El Boufi, N., Oulamine, A., & Oubihi, I. (2025). Institutional Voids
and Women's Digital Entrepreneurship in Morocco: Challenges and Opportunities
in the e-Commerce Realm. International Journal of Organizational Diversity,
26(1), 1-18. Scopus. https://doi.org/10.18848/2328-6261/CGP/v26i01/1-18
Arbulu, A., Lisseth Katherine, C. C.,
Ana Elizabeth, P. M., Julie Catherine, A. C., Rafael, M. A., Marilú Trinidad,
F. L., & Julio Ernesto, B. S. (2024). Factors Predicting Female Entrepreneurship
Among University Students in the Lambayeque Region, Peru. In Larrondo Petrie M.M., Texier J., & Matta
R.A.R. (Eds.), Proc. LACCEI int. Multi-conf. Eng. Educ. Technol. Latin American and Caribbean
Consortium of Engineering Institutions. Scopus.
https://doi.org/10.18687/LEIRD2024.1.1.190
Bastida, M., García, A. V., &
Taín, M. Á. V. (2024). Building
a sustainable future: Women's entrepreneurial intentions in the Social Economy.
CIRIEC-Spain Journal of Public, Social and Cooperative Economy, (111),
69-95. Scopus. https://doi.org/10.7203/CIRIEC-E.111.27894
Cruzado,
C. G. T., Vite, A. Z., Cerna, L. A., Chinga, R. J., Pinto, Y. A., & Rosas,
A. A. J. (2023). Femenine entrepreneurship, human development, and public
policies: The Peruvian case. Proc. LACCEI int. multi-conf. eng. educ.
technol. Scopus. Proceedings of the LACCEI international Multi-conference
for Engineering, Education and Technology.
https://doi.org/10.18687/LEIRD2023.1.1.285
Cunha, V.
B. D. C., Nascimento, T. C., & Falcão, R. P. D. Q. (2024). IN SEARCH OF AN INTEGRATIVE
FRAMEWORK FOR FEMALE IMMIGRANT ENTREPRENEURSHIP. RAE
Revista de Administração de Empresas, 64(1).
Scopus. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-759020240101
Duarte,
P. D. P., Duarte, J. A. P., & García, M. L. S. (2025). Female
Entrepreneurship and Family Well-being in Mexico. Apuntes
del Cenes, 44(79), 171-198. Scopus.
https://doi.org/10.19053/uptc.01203053.v44.n79.2025.17955
Emilia, O.
G. M., Cristina, U. A. M., Teodoro, R. P. R., & Isabel, R. A. P. (2022).
Female Entrepreneurship in local development in Ecuador. Revista Venezolana
de Gerencia, 27(7), 73-87. Scopus.
https://doi.org/10.52080/rvgluz.27.7.6
Finke, J.,
Osorio-Tinoco, F., & Laverde, F. P. (2021). Women's empowerment, entrepreneurship and
poverty. The Colombian case. Cuadernos de
Administración, 34. Scopus.
https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.cao34.efepcc
Frende, M. Á., & Salgado-Canto,
M. (2024). Twenty-three
years of research on female entrepreneurship and business growth: A
bibliometric analysis. Revista Venezolana de Gerencia, 29
(Special 11), 102-117. Scopus. https://doi.org/10.52080/rvgluz.29.e11.6
Hernández,
S. P. P., Leal, M. C., García, M. L. S., & Castro, C. J. M. (2022). Sociocultural factors and female entrepreneurship in Saltillo
(Coahuila) and Oaxaca de Juárez (Oaxaca), Mexico 2019-2020. Suma de Negocios,
13(29), 140-149. Scopus.
https://doi.org/10.14349/sumneg/2022.V13.N29.A7
Huamán, F.,
Guede, B., Cancino, C. A., & Cordova, M. (2022). Female entrepreneurship: Evidence-based
high-impact perspective from Chile and Peru. Estudios
Gerenciales, 38(162), 45-56. Scopus.
https://doi.org/10.18046/j.estger.2022.162.4586
Infantes, M. S., Moscoso, D. M. P.,
Montalvo, M. A. A., Estrada, R. C., & Dávila-Morán, R. C. (2023). ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND FEMALE
EMPOWERMENT IN YOUNG PEOPLE IN LIMA. University and Society, 15(1),
616-625. Scopus.
https://www.scopus.com/pages/publications/85148515186?origin=resultslist
Koller, M. T., López, M. M. M., &
Villalobos, J. C. G. (2021). Digital female entrepreneurship for social and economic development:
Characteristics and barriers in Spain. REVESCO Journal of Cooperative
Studies, 138. Scopus. https://doi.org/10.5209/REVE.75561
Medina, P. H., Torres, G. R., &
Acurio, S. P. (2021). Female
empowerment and entrepreneurship, a rural and urban comparison, Latacunga
Canton, Cotopaxi Province. Journal of Regional Studies, 122,
173-199. Scopus.
https://www.scopus.com/pages/publications/85174397186?origin=resultslist
Millán,
B., Kuschel, K., Bustamante, C., Carrasco, J. A., & Catalán, P. (2026).
Female leadership in startups: Analyzing survival rates and challenges in
emerging economies. Management Research. Scopus.
https://doi.org/10.1108/MRJIAM-06-2025-1744
Molina,
M., Laguna-Sánchez, P., Segovia-Pérez, M., & Sorhegui, R. (2025). The role
of female entrepreneurship in rural development with a local focus in Ecuador. Journal
of Social Sciences, 31(11), 96-111. Scopus.
https://www.scopus.com/pages/publications/105014810599?origin=resultslist
Montiel-Espinosa, L. I., &
Huerta-Cuervo, R. (2026). RESILIENCE AND ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT: VOICES OF FEMALE ENTREPRENEURSHIP. Academia and Negocios Magazine, 12(1).
Scopus. https://doi.org/10.29393/RAN12-5VEMH20005
Nicolás, C., García, C., Manzanares,
Á., & Riquelme, J. (2021). LEADER a policy to boost rural female entrepreneurship in Murcia. Convergence, 28. Scopus.
https://doi.org/10.29101/crcs.v28i0.16533
Osorio-Pascacio, P. S.,
Manrique-Plácido, J. M., & Yépez-Pretel, N. E. (2024). Entrepreneurship and Female
Leadership: A Systematic Literature Review from 2019 to 2023. Proc. LACCEI
int. multi-conf. eng. educ. technol. Scopus. Proceedings of the LACCEI
international Multi-conference for Engineering, Education and Technology.
https://doi.org/10.18687/LACCEI2024.1.1.1542
Pérez, G. W., Marcelo, L. A.,
Gasparrini, V. G., Saldaña, J. B., & Olórtegui, L. M. (2025). Female Entrepreneurship and Women's
Empowerment in Footwear Manufacturing Mypes in the Industrial Park of Villa El
Salvador, Lima – Peru. In
Larrondo Petrie M.M., Texier J., & Rivas Matta R.A. (Eds.), Proc. LACCEI int. Multi-conf. Eng. Educ.
Technol. Latin
American and Caribbean Consortium of Engineering Institutions. Scopus.
https://doi.org/10.18687/LEIRD2025.1.1.350
Rodríguez-Olay,
L. (2021). Gigas for Schools: A project to bring technology and
entrepreneurship to female students. Sociology and Technoscience, 11,
260-273. Scopus. https://doi.org/10.24197/st.Extra_2.2021.260-273
Silva,
J. M. C., & Karpinski, C. (2021). Female entrepreneurship: Support for
discussion in information science. Revista Ibero-Americana de Ciencia da
Informação, 14(1). Scopus.
https://doi.org/10.26512/rici.v14.n1.2021.32189
Tiburcio,
M. L., Godínez, R., Salgado, J. F., & Lozano, E. (2026). Female
entrepreneurship and company ́s digitalization from the perspective of
grounded theory. Revista Venezolana de Gerencia, 31(113). Scopus.
https://doi.org/10.52080/rvgluz.31.113.9
Velázquez-Castro,
J. A., Cruz Coria, E., & Calanchez Urribarri, Á. D. V. (2025).
Circular-based economy and female entrepreneurship in rural tourism
communities: A research agenda. Revista Venezolana
de Gerencia, 30(112), 1824-1838. Scopus.
https://doi.org/10.52080/rvgluz.30.112.8