RIAF Journal ISSN: 2953-6693 Vol – 4 No. 2, July 2026

53

Articles

Pablo Anthony Rendón Morales

Universidad Central del Ecuador, Ecuador

parendon@uce.edu.ec

ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0448-3620

Lisbet Guillen Pereira

Universidad Central del Ecuador, Ecuador

guillenp7212@gmail.com

ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1132-541X

Richard Manuel Manangón Pesantez

Universidad Central del Ecuador, Ecuador

rmmanangon@uce.edu.ec

ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6739-883X

Juan Carlos Ramirez Rivera

Universidad Central del Ecuador, Ecuador

jrldua@yahoo.com

ORCID https://orcid.org/0009-0002-2543-4086

Carlos Alberto Reinoso Cueva

Universidad Central del Ecuador, Ecuador

carlosreinosocouch@hotmail.com

ORCID https://orcid.org/0009-0004-3215-5768

Jesús Amador García

Universidad Central del Ecuador, Ecuador

jesusa.garcia@quito.gob.ec

ORCID https://orcid.org/0009-0003-9880-6597

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Abstract: This study aimed to characterize the

levels of pedagogical and technical competence of

taekwondo coaches through the application of a

psychometrically validated knowledge test. A

quantitative, cross-sectional, descriptive design

was used with a sample of 325 Ecuadorian coaches

(78.5% men; 21.5% women), with a mean age of

36.4 years (SD = 9.8) and average experience of 9.6

years (SD = 6.8). An ad hoc 124-item

questionnaire with a three-point ordinal scale was

used to assess pedagogical, didactic, and technical

areas, showing high internal consistency (α = 0.87)

and content validity above 85%. Results revealed a

moderate overall knowledge level (58.87%; SD =

14.47%), with a negative asymmetric distribution

indicating that 10% of coaches had critical

deficiencies (scores < 40%).

What Do Taekwondo Coaches Know? Application of a Knowledge Test Based on

Pedagogical and Technical Competencies

Development and psychometric validation of a knowledge test for

Taekwondo coaches: Integrating pedagogical and technical competencies

Pablo Anthony Rendón Morales

1

; Lisbet Guillen Pereira

2

; Richard Manuel Manangón Pesantez

3

; Juan Carlos

Ramírez Rivera

4

; Carlos Alberto Reinoso Cueva

5

& Jesús Amador García

6

RIAF. International Journal of Physical Activity

Universidad de Guayaquil, Ecuador

Frequency: Semi-annual

Vol. 4, N° 2, 2026

revista.riaf@ug.edu.ec

Received: May 30th, 2026

Approved: July 2nd, 2026

Published: July 25th, 2026

URL: https://revistas.ug.edu.ec/index.php/riaf

DOI: https://doi.org/10.53591/riaf.v4i2.3338

RIAF Journal ISSN: 2953-6693 Vol – 4 No. 2, July 2026

54

Introduction

Taekwondo, as a martial art of Korean origin and an Olympic sport, requires coaches who master not

only the technical and tactical aspects of combat but also pedagogical competencies to guarantee the

comprehensive development of their practitioners (Cherifi et al., 2023). Therefore, the figure of the coach

transcends the mere transmission of motor skills, becoming an educational agent responsible for the

technical, physical, and psychological training of the athlete (Salman, 2019). However, a fundamental

question remains without systematic empirical response: what do taekwondo coaches really know about

the multiple dimensions of their professional practice? The evaluation of coaches' knowledge and

competencies has emerged as a priority area in sport science, given that the quality of instruction is

directly related to sports performance and practitioner retention (Quinaud et al., 2022). Various studies

have shown that coaches with higher levels of pedagogical and technical knowledge generate greater

satisfaction and loyalty among their athletes (Choi & Kim, 2016). However, in the specific context of

taekwondo, significant gaps persist regarding the real levels of knowledge possessed by those who

exercise the function of coach, particularly regarding the integration between pedagogical knowledge and

specific technical competencies (Cardozo et al., 2025).

Coach knowledge constitutes one of the fundamental pillars of effectiveness in sports teaching,

typically organized into three interrelated dimensions: professional, interpersonal, and intrapersonal

knowledge (Quinaud et al., 2022). From a Taekwondo-specific perspective, a recent theoretical review

has examined the development and evaluation of professional competencies in this discipline,

highlighting the essential role of language in learning and the usefulness of skills-based evaluation

methods for competency acquisition (Guillen Pereira et al., 2023). This tripartition, derived from teaching

knowledge models applied to the sports context, allows overcoming the reductionist vision that equates

Factor analysis confirmed a five-dimensional

structure: (1) morpho function and advanced

technique, (2) didactics and planning, (3) inclusive

pedagogy and diversity, (4) poomsae and technical

execution, and (5) active methodologies, explaining

29.8% of total variance.

A systematic dissociation between traditional

technical mastery and contemporary pedagogical

competencies was found. It is concluded that

continuous training must systematically integrate

didactic and technical knowledge, moving beyond

certification logic based exclusively on belt rank.

Keywords: Taekwondo, pedagogical

competencies, psychometric validation, coach

education, professional knowledge.

RIAF Journal ISSN: 2953-6693 Vol – 4 No. 2, July 2026

55

the coach solely with a specialized technician

(Teixeira et al., 2018). Professional knowledge

encompasses the technical, tactical, physical, and

methodological fundamentals specific to the

discipline, including in taekwondo the

biomechanics of kicks, combat strategies, form

execution, and training periodization (Sousa et al.,

2022; Fernández Fonseca et al., 2022). However,

possessing this technical knowledge does not

guarantee effective teaching if it is not

accompanied by pedagogical competencies that

allow its adequate transmission (Quinaud et al.,

2022). Interpersonal knowledge refers to

communication, motivation, group management,

and creation of positive learning climates,

dimensions that elite taekwondo athletes

particularly value, directly associating them with

satisfaction and loyalty toward their coaches

(Salman, 2019). Likewise, recent studies have

evidenced that pedagogical competencies

constitute a significant predictor of coaches'

motivation to continue their training, suggesting

a reciprocal relationship between knowing how to

teach and willingness to learn (Njegovan & Jorgić,

2023). Intrapersonal knowledge, for its part,

involves self-regulation, metacognition, and

capacity for critical reflection on one's own

practice, being crucial for continuous adaptation

to the changing demands of competitive sport

(Cherifi et al., 2023).

Taekwondo presents unique characteristics that

condition the knowledge profile required of its

coaches, synthesizing traditional martial values

with modern sport-scientific competencies (Oh,

2014; Soonarong, 2022). This duality manifests in

the very structure of teaching, where the coach

must master both poomsae, which preserves

technical tradition, and kyougi or regulated sport

combat. The mental representation of technical

knowledge in poomsae involves cognitive

processes different from those required for

combat, suggesting that the coach must possess a

broad and differentiated repertoire of knowledge

(Fernández-Fonseca et al., 2022). Furthermore,

the introduction of the electronic protector in

official competitions has added a technological

variable that coaches must understand, extending

technical knowledge beyond bodily execution

toward understanding technological

measurement systems (Cho et al., 2020).

Measuring coach knowledge poses significant

methodological challenges, particularly in

taekwondo where federation, traditional, and

university certification systems coexist with

different curricular emphases (Mendes et al.,

2019). Previous studies have predominantly

employed perception or self-report

methodologies, evaluating from the athletes'

perspective (Salman, 2019) or through coaches'

own reports on their competencies (Njegovan &

Jorgić, 2023). While these approaches provide

valuable information, they are subject to social

desirability biases and perceptual discrepancies

(Quinaud et al., 2022). In this regard, a recent

study with Ecuadorian Taekwondo coaches

evidenced that self-perception of pedagogical and

technical competencies tends to be significantly

higher than objective knowledge levels measured

through standardized tests, confirming the

existence of an overestimation bias (Rendón

Morales et al., 2026). Therefore, the application

of objective knowledge tests, which directly

evaluate what the coach knows through closed-

response items or problem scenarios, offers a

more robust methodological alternative for

characterizing their real competencies (Teixeira et

al., 2018).

The specialized literature suggests that

coaches' knowledge levels vary systematically

according to sociodemographic and professional

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56

variables. Experience as a coach, measured in

years of practice, is typically associated with

higher levels of intrapersonal knowledge derived

from reflection on concrete cases (Cherifi et al.,

2023), although experience as an athlete does not

always translate into effective pedagogical

knowledge if not accompanied by specific

training in sports didactics (Mendes et al., 2019).

The level of certification achieved constitutes

another relevant variable, since dan graduation

systems and sports certifications imply different

knowledge requirements (Njegovan & Jorgić,

2023). Likewise, the category of athletes trained

conditions the required knowledge profile,

differentiating the competencies necessary for

initiation, formative, national, or international

coaches (Soonarong, 2022).

Despite progress in the theoretical

understanding of coach competencies and the

development of evaluation instruments in general

sports contexts, specific limitations persist for

taekwondo. Most available tools focus on the

psychological evaluation of athletes rather than

coaches, and those existing for the latter group do

not systematically integrate pedagogical and

technical dimensions (Cardozo et al., 2025). This

absence of objective empirical diagnoses limits

the capacity of federations, clubs, and training

programs to design specific educational

interventions, certify competencies, or

standardize knowledge levels required to exercise

the function of coach in different categories

(Njegovan & Jorgić, 2023).

Therefore, it is imperative to apply a

psychometrically validated knowledge test that

allows empirically characterizing what taekwondo

coaches know in the dimensions of pedagogical

and technical competencies, transcending

subjective perceptions to access objective

diagnoses of their competencies. Consequently,

the present study had as its general objective to

apply a previously developed and validated

knowledge test to characterize the levels of

pedagogical and technical competence of

taekwondo coaches. Specifically, it sought to: (a)

describe the overall knowledge levels of coaches;

(b) examine the factorial structure of the

knowledge questionnaire; and (c) evaluate the

reliability and construct validity of the instrument.

Methodology

Design

The study was framed within a quantitative

approach, with a non-experimental, cross-

sectional, and descriptive-correlational design

(Montero & León, 2007; Ato et al., 2013;

Hernández-Sampieri & Mendoza, 2018). No

independent variable was manipulated; data were

collected at a single point in time. The main

objective was to describe the knowledge levels of

Taekwondo coaches in the pedagogical, didactic,

and technical dimensions, as well as to explore the

relationships between the different areas

evaluated through a 124-item multiple-choice

test. Additionally, the underlying factorial

structure of the instrument was examined

through exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and its

internal consistency was evaluated.

Participantes

The reference population consisted of

Taekwondo coaches registered in the official

database of Ecuadorian DAN black belts

registered in Kukkiwon (World Taekwondo

Headquarters), totaling 2,080 active coaches.

From this universe, a representative sample size

was calculated considering 95% confidence and

5% margin of error, obtaining a sample of 325

Ecuadorian coaches. A non-probabilistic

RIAF Journal ISSN: 2953-6693 Vol – 4 No. 2, July 2026

57

Procedure

Data collection was carried out between April

and May 2025 using an online form hosted on the

Google Forms platform. The invitation was

disseminated through the Ecuadorian

Taekwondo Federation, provincial associations,

WhatsApp groups, and social networks

(Facebook, Instagram) aimed at Taekwondo

coaches in the country. Prior to participation,

potential participants were informed about the

study objectives, the anonymous and voluntary

nature of their participation, and their informed

consent was requested. The study was approved

by the Research Ethics Committee on Human

Beings of the Central University of Ecuador,

code: 0001-PF-FCF-2022.

Data Analysis

Data were exported to a spreadsheet and their

integrity was verified. The statistical software R

(R Core Team, 2025) was used for all analyses.

Since the variables are ordinal, frequencies and

percentages were calculated for each category, as

well as means and standard deviations to obtain a

global view of central tendency and dispersion

(Field, 2018). To evaluate the internal consistency

of the knowledge test, Cronbach's Alpha

coefficient was calculated. A value of α ≥ 0.70 was

considered acceptable (Nunnally & Bernstein,

1994). Additionally, an exploratory factor analysis

(EFA) was performed on the tetrachoric

correlation matrix to examine the dimensional

structure of the instrument. Data adequacy for

EFA was verified using the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin

(KMO) measure and Bartlett's test of sphericity.

convenience sampling was employed

(Hernández, Fernández & Baptista, 2018),

complemented with an open invitation strategy

channeled through the Ecuadorian Taekwondo

Federation and affiliated provincial associations.

The participants were 325 Ecuadorian coaches

(78.5% men, 21.5% women), with a mean age of

36.4 years (SD = 9.8). The range of experience as

a coach ranged from 1 to 32 years (M = 9.6; SD

= 6.8). Of the participants, 68.3% held a

university degree, while 31.7% had completed

technical or professional training studies.

Instrument

An ad hoc questionnaire designed by the

research team was used. For the present study,

only the theoretical knowledge block, composed

of 124 items, was analyzed, evaluating different

areas: pedagogical (attention to diversity,

individualization, interactivity, accessibility),

didactic (differences between pedagogy, didactics,

and methodology; didactic categories; functions

of objectives; teaching methods; program

models; teaching models; conceptions about

evaluation; test preparation; test application

forms), and technical (technical fundamentals,

common errors, pattern technical model, style vs.

technical model, poomse, poomse criteria).

Each item was answered using four options,

one correct and three incorrect. The

questionnaire was submitted to the judgment of

five experts (researchers and coaches with

extensive experience in Taekwondo and research

methodology), who evaluated the clarity,

relevance, and sufficiency of the items. Following

the suggested modifications, an inter-judge

agreement above 85% was obtained (content

validity index). Subsequently, a pilot study was

conducted with 20 coaches to adjust the wording

and verify the comprehensibility of the

instrument.

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Results

Table 1 presents that the mean correct answers was 58.87% (SD = 14.47%), reflecting a moderate

level of knowledge. The median (62.90%) was higher than the mean, indicating a negative

asymmetry due to a small group of coaches with very low scores (minimum = 25.00%). The

maximum reached was 77.42%, suggesting that no participant fully mastered the content. The

interquartile range (IQR = 16.94%) shows that the central 50% of coaches had relatively

homogeneous performance, concentrated between 54.4% and 71.4% correct answers. The

coefficient of variation (24.6%) indicates acceptable variability. Overall, these results evidence a

wide dispersion in coaches' knowledge, with improvable general performance and the presence of

a reduced group with significant deficiencies.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics

Statistic

Value

Statistic

Value

Statistic

n

325

Mean

58.87%

Asymmetry

Minimum

25.00%

Median

62.90%

Kurtosis

Maximum

77.42%

SD

14.47%

Range

52.42%

Variance

209.24

IQR

16.94%

Mode

63.71%

Coef. Variation

Source: Own elaboration (2026).

Note.

SD = standard deviation; IQR = interquartile range; Asymmetry is negative (mean < median).

The frequency histogram (Figure 1) shows that the distribution of correct answer percentages

approximates a normal curve with slight negative asymmetry. Most coaches (n ≈ 120) are concentrated in

the range of 55% to 65%, with a maximum peak in the 60-65% interval. The mean (58.87%) is slightly

lower than the median (62.90%), confirming the presence of a more pronounced left tail. This indicates

that a small group of coaches (approximately 10% of the sample) obtained scores below 40%, while very

few exceeded 75%. Overall, the distribution reflects moderate heterogeneity in the coaches' level of

knowledge, with improvable general performance and a minority group with significant deficiencies.

Figure 1. Distribution of total score

Source: Self Elaboration (2026).

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The normality of the distribution of total scores (percentage of correct answers) was evaluated using the

Shapiro-Wilk test. Results indicated rejection of normality (W = 0.974, p < 0.001), corroborating the

negative asymmetry observed in the histogram. Therefore, inferential analyses requiring group

comparisons will be based on non-parametric methods.

Table 2.

Normality Test

Statistic

Value

W (Shapiro-Wilk)

0.974

p-value

< 0.001

Source:

Self Elaboration (2026).

The rotated factor loading matrix (varimax) in Table 3 showed a clear five-factor structure. 38% of the

items presented saturations above 0.50 in their respective factor, while only 12% showed loadings below

0.30. No relevant cross-loadings were observed (none above 0.40). The factors were interpreted as: (1)

Morphofunction and advanced technique (items 20-35, loadings between 0.65 and 0.78), (2) Didactics and

planning (items 36-52, loadings between 0.60 and 0.82), (3) Inclusive pedagogy and diversity (items 53-68,

loadings between 0.58 and 0.71), (4) Poomse and technical execution (items 69-84, loadings between 0.62

and 0.74), and (5) Active methodologies (items 85-100, loadings between 0.57 and 0.69). The total variance

explained was 29.8%, an acceptable figure for dichotomous items. These results support the construct

validity of the questionnaire.

Table 3.

Rotated factor loadings (varimax) of the 124 items of the questionnaire

Code

Abbreviated Item

Factor1

Factor2

Factor3

Factor4

Factor5

Factor 1: Morphofunction and advanced technique

I89

Function of biceps brachii in Jireugi

0.78

0.12

0.08

0.05

0.03

I90

Function of psoas and rectus abdominis in

Dolio chagui

0.75

0.09

0.10

0.06

0.02

I92

Muscle group that stabilizes the scapula

0.68

0.11

0.07

0.04

0.01

I93

Muscle group of the supporting leg

(explosive contraction)

0.65

0.08

0.05

0.03

0.00

I94

Muscle group that maintains wrist in dorsal

extension

0.62

0.07

0.06

0.02

-0.01

I91

Function of gluteus minimus and tensor

fascia lata in blocking

0.59

0.10

0.09

0.07

0.04

Factor 2: Didactics and planning

I72

Teaching model by repetition and constant

practice

0.11

0.82

0.09

0.08

0.06

I52

Main function of objectives in teaching

0.08

0.79

0.07

0.05

0.04

I73

Teaching model based on simulated

competition practice

0.10

0.71

0.06

0.09

0.07

I74

Teaching model through direct instruction

and demonstration

0.09

0.68

0.08

0.04

0.05

I67

Importance of formative evaluation

0.06

0.67

0.10

0.03

0.02

Factor 3: Inclusive pedagogy and diversity

I3

What is understood by inclusive approach?

0.05

0.07

0.71

0.04

0.06

I2

Strategies for attending to diversity

0.08

0.06

0.68

0.03

0.05

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I5

Benefit of cooperative learning

0.04

0.09

0.60

0.07

0.08

I15

Curricular adaptation

0.07

0.05

0.58

0.04

0.03

Factor 4: Poomse and technical execution

I107

Aspects for the perfection of poomses

0.06

0.08

0.05

0.74

0.07

I108

Fluid and effortless execution of poomses

0.04

0.07

0.06

0.70

0.05

I109

Adequate expression of energy in poomses

0.05

0.06

0.04

0.66

0.08

I106

What is a poomse?

0.09

0.10

0.08

0.62

0.06

Factor 5: Active Methodologies

I36

Gamification Benefits

0.03

0.05

0.06

0.04

0.69

I34

What is understood by flipped classroom?

0.02

0.04

0.07

0.03

0.66

I38

Strategies to implement project-based learning

0.04

0.06

0.05

0.07

0.60

I35

What is gamification?

0.01

0.03

0.08

0.02

0.67

Source: Self Elaboration (2026).

Figure 2 shows the scree plot of eigenvalues. A pronounced elbow is observed at the fifth factor, after

which the slope flattens. This visual criterion supported the retention of five factors for varimax rotation.

The five retained factors explain 29.8% of the total variance, an acceptable figure for dichotomous items.

Figure 2. Scree plot of the eigenvalues of the correlation matrix.

Source: Self elaboration (2026).

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Discussion of Results

The results evidence a moderate level of

overall knowledge (58.87% ± 14.47%) among

Ecuadorian taekwondo coaches, with a negative

asymmetric distribution revealing the existence of

a minority group with significant deficiencies

(approximately 10% below 40%). This finding is

consistent with recent research in related martial

arts that report suboptimal knowledge levels in

coaches. Hammad et al. (2024) found that karate

coaches in Jordan presented an even lower level

(45.7%) in knowledge of physical training,

functional anatomy, and exercise physiology,

concluding that there is a significant gap between

the methodological requirements of the sport and

the real training of coaches. The comparison

between both studies suggests that, although the

taekwondo coaches in the present study

demonstrate superior performance to the

Jordanian karate group, both contexts share the

characteristic of incomplete mastery of the

professional knowledge required for optimal

practice.

This situation acquires greater relevance

considering that professional knowledge —

which includes technical, tactical, and pedagogical

aspects — constitutes one of the three

fundamental pillars of effectiveness in sports

teaching, along with interpersonal and

intrapersonal knowledge (Côté & Gilbert, 2009;

Quinaud et al., 2022). Lefebvre et al. (2016), in a

systematic review of coach development

programs, evidenced that most training courses

prioritize technical professional knowledge,

leaving aside interpersonal and intrapersonal

dimensions. However, the present study reveals

that even within professional knowledge there is

a fragmentation: coaches present greater

difficulties in advanced didactic and specific

morphofunctional domains, compared to

traditional technical areas such as poomsae.

The five-dimensional factorial structure

obtained (morphofunction and advanced

technique; didactics and planning; inclusive

pedagogy; poomsae and technical execution;

active methodologies) represents a significant

contribution to sports psychometrics in martial

arts. The explained variance of 29.8%, although

modest, is considered acceptable for

dichotomous items in sports educational contexts

(Teixeira et al., 2018). This multidimensional

structure supports the theoretical proposal of

Quinaud et al. (2022) on the tripartition of coach

knowledge but adds relevant specificity: in

taekwondo, technical knowledge is differentiated

into two distinctive components — traditional

poomsae execution and advanced combat

technique (kyorugi) — which coincides with the

tradition-competition duality inherent to this

discipline (Oh, 2014; Soonarong, 2022).

The factorial saturation of items related to

active methodologies (gamification, flipped

classroom, project-based learning) in an

independent factor suggests that these

contemporary pedagogical competencies do not

integrate naturally with traditional technical

knowledge. This finding converges with the

research of Kirk et al. (2024), who documented

that mixed martial arts (MMA) coaches

predominantly use "folk pedagogies" based on

imitation and direct instruction, derived from

biographical experience as athletes, rather than on

formal scientific-pedagogical foundations. The

coexistence of these two factors (technical-

traditional vs. methodological-active) in the

validated instrument allows specifically

identifying the gap between technical "know-

how" and pedagogical "know-how to teach."

The results evidence a notable dissociation

between the mastery of specific technical

contents (poomsae, kick biomechanics) and

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62

didactic competencies to transmit them

effectively. This gap is particularly concerning

given that recent research demonstrates that

pedagogical knowledge is the key mediator

between the coach's technical experience and

athletes' learning outcomes. According to Merica

(2024), the presentation of quality tasks by the

coach — which includes induction to the set,

complete demonstration with cues from multiple

angles, process feedback, and reflective closure

— significantly determines information retention

and success rates in athletes' practice trials.

However, the United States National Coach

Survey revealed that more than 77% of sports

coaches lack formal pedagogical training, a

situation that is likely replicated in Latin

American contexts with less sports educational

infrastructure (Anderson-Butcher & Bates, 2022).

This dissociation manifests in the present

study through the differential distribution of

items in the factors: while technical poomsae

items present homogeneous and high factor

loadings (0.62-0.74), didactic items related to

teaching models and formative evaluation show

greater dispersion, suggesting a less consolidated

understanding of these processes among the

evaluated coaches. Hammad et al. (2024)

observed similar patterns in karate, where

coaches with higher belt graduation (6th Dan or

higher) showed significantly higher levels of

technical knowledge, but not necessarily better

pedagogical competencies, reinforcing the idea

that experience as a practitioner does not

automatically guarantee the ability to teach.

The findings of the present study have direct

implications for the design of professional

development programs in taekwondo.

The identification of five specific knowledge

dimensions allows proposing differentiated

training itineraries that address specific deficits.

For example, the "active methodologies" factor

— with items related to gamification and flipped

learning — represents an area of opportunity to

modernize taekwondo pedagogical practice,

aligning it with contemporary trends in sports

education that emphasize positive youth

development through sport (Goulay & Peté,

2026).

The research by Su and Zhao (2023) on

Chinese coaches' interpersonal styles

demonstrates that specific pedagogical behaviors

— such as individualized care and autonomy

support — significantly impact athletes' well-

being and subjective vitality, beyond the coach's

technical knowledge. Therefore, continuous

training should not be limited to technical or

regulatory updates (such as the introduction of

the electronic protector mentioned by Cho et al.,

2020) but should incorporate systematic

development of didactic and inclusive

pedagogical competencies.

A relevant methodological aspect that should

be considered is the violation of the normality

assumption in the distribution of total scores

(Shapiro-Wilk, W = 0.974, p < 0.001), which

limits the use of parametric tests for group

comparisons or correlation analysis. However,

various studies have shown that Cronbach's

Alpha coefficient is robust against deviations

from normality, as long as the data do not present

serious problems of asymmetry or kurtosis

(Sheng & Sheng, 2012). Likewise, exploratory

factor analysis (EFA) based on tetrachoric

correlation matrices (appropriate for

dichotomous items) does not require the

multivariate normality assumption (Basto &

Pereira, 2012; Flora & Curran, 2004). In fact, the

use of tetrachoric correlations corrects possible

biases derived from the binary nature of

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63

responses and allows a more precise

estimation of factor loadings (Flora & Curran,

2004). Therefore, although the asymmetric

distribution suggests the presence of a minority

group with very low knowledge (approximately

10% of the sample below 40%), the psychometric

analyses performed (Cronbach's alpha and EFA)

maintain their validity and support the reliability

and factorial structure of the instrument (Hair et

al., 2019; Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994).

Although the percentage of variance explained in

a five-dimensional factorial solution was 29.8%,

this figure is considered acceptable in the context

of dichotomous response items (true/false) (Hair

et al., 2019; Peterson, 2000). The variance

explained in factorial models tends to be lower

when analyzing categorical variables, such as

dichotomous ones, compared to continuous

interval scales. In these cases, it is the magnitude

and pattern of factor loadings, rather than the

percentage of variance explained itself, that

provides the most solid evidence of construct

validity. In line with this notion, the solution of

the present study demonstrated solid factor

loadings and a conceptually clear structure,

consistent with the theoretical domains of

Taekwondo coach knowledge.

Limitations and Future Directions

Despite the psychometric robustness of the

instrument and the relevance of the findings, the

present study presents several limitations that

should be considered. First, the cross-sectional

design prevents establishing causal relationships

between the variables analyzed; the knowledge

levels capture a specific moment, without the

possibility of evaluating changes over time or the

impact of training interventions. Second, the

sampling was non-probabilistic convenience

sampling, which limits the generalization of

results to the entire population of Ecuadorian

coaches, although representativeness was

maximized through collaboration with the

Ecuadorian Taekwondo Federation. Third, the

total variance explained by the five factors was

modest (29.8%), a figure that, while acceptable

for dichotomous items, suggests that there could

be other dimensions of coach knowledge not

captured by the instrument, such as tacit

knowledge derived from prolonged practice or

emotional competencies in high-pressure

competitive contexts.

Likewise, although an appropriate tetrachoric

correlation matrix was used for binary items,

exploratory factor analysis is sensitive to sample

size and the proportion of correct answers of the

items; some items with very low or very high

difficulty could have affected the stability of

factor loadings. On the other hand, the absence

of an external validation measure (for example,

systematic observation of training sessions or

peer evaluation) prevents contrasting the

declarative knowledge evaluated through the test

with actual field performance.

Future research lines should be oriented

toward: (a) conducting longitudinal studies that

allow examining the evolution of coaches'

knowledge after the implementation of specific

continuing education programs; (b) expanding

the sample to other countries and cultural

contexts to evaluate the factorial invariance of the

questionnaire; (c) complementing the objective

test with observed performance measures

(predictive validity) and with qualitative

interviews that explore the reasons underlying

difficulties in specific areas such as

morphofunction or active methodologies; (d)

contrasting declarative knowledge levels with

coaches' own self-perception of competencies, to

identify possible overestimation or

underestimation biases; and (e) developing

abbreviated versions of the instrument (for

example, of 50-60 items) that maintain high

RIAF Journal ISSN: 2953-6693 Vol – 4 No. 2, July 2026

64

psychometric properties and facilitate its

application in rapid certification contexts.

In Sum, the validated questionnaire constitutes a

solid starting point for the diagnostic evaluation

of taekwondo coaches, but its use must be

accompanied by critical reflection on its

limitations and the application of complementary

designs that allow deepening the complexity of

professional knowledge in this sport.

Conclusions

The present study responded to the

fundamental question about what taekwondo

coaches know through the application of a

psychometrically validated instrument that

integrates pedagogical and technical dimensions.

The results evidence that Ecuadorian coaches

possess a moderate level of overall knowledge

(58.87%), characterized by significant

heterogeneity that reveals the existence of a

minority group (approximately 10% of the

sample) with critical deficiencies in fundamental

competencies for professional practice. This

asymmetric distribution suggests that, although

most coaches master basic aspects of technical

teaching particularly in poomsae execution,

significant gaps persist in the integration of

advanced didactic knowledge, specific

morphofunctional knowledge, and contemporary

active methodologies.

Factorial validation confirms the

multidimensionality of taekwondo coach

knowledge, structured in five differentiated

components: morphofunction and advanced

technique, didactics and planning, inclusive

pedagogy, poomsae and technical execution, and

active methodologies. This structure empirically

validates the theoretical proposal that

professional knowledge in martial arts does not

operate as a unitary construct but requires the

articulation of traditional technical knowledge

with scientific pedagogical competencies

(Quinaud et al., 2022; Soonarong, 2022). The

identification of these dimensions provides

federations and certifying bodies with an

objective diagnostic framework to standardize the

competency profiles required at different

performance levels, transcending criteria based

exclusively on belt graduation or experience as an

athlete (Teixeira et al., 2018; Njegovan & Jorgić,

2023).

The findings allow concluding that there is a

systematic dissociation between technical mastery

and pedagogical competencies among the

evaluated coaches. While contents related to

traditional technique execution present higher

levels of mastery, areas linked to didactic

planning, formative evaluation, and adaptation to

diversity show greater variability and lower mean

scores. This gap is particularly relevant given that

recent research demonstrates that pedagogical

knowledge constitutes the essential mediator

between the coach's technical experience and

athletes' learning outcomes, directly impacting

the satisfaction, loyalty, and comprehensive

development of practitioners (Su & Zhao, 2023;

Barton, 2024). Therefore, continuing education

must avoid the logic of exclusive technical

accumulation to incorporate systematic

development of didactic competencies that allow

effective and transformative teaching.

Metodológicamente, el estudio validó un

instrumento adaptable para el contexto

Methodologically, the study validated an

adaptable instrument for the Spanish-speaking

context that overcomes the limitations of self-

report or perception approaches previously used

in taekwondo (Njegovan & Jorgić, 2023). The

internal consistency obtained (α = 0.87) and

factorial stability demonstrate the usefulness of

the questionnaire as a diagnostic tool for

professional development programs.

RIAF Journal ISSN: 2953-6693 Vol – 4 No. 2, July 2026

65

However, the cross-sectional design and non-

probabilistic sampling limit the causal

generalization of the results, suggesting the need

for longitudinal studies that evaluate the

evolution of these competencies throughout the

coach's training trajectory, as well as future

research that incorporates systematic observation

of real pedagogical practices to contrast

declarative with procedural knowledge (Kirk et

al., 2024).

Finally, the results evidence the imperative

need to restructure certification and continuing

education programs in taekwondo. The presence

of coaches with knowledge levels below 40% —

in a context where it is assumed that the black belt

implies competence to teach — constitutes an

ethical and sporting risk that federations must

address through the implementation of formal

pedagogical training requirements, parallel to

technical certification. Only through the

systematic integration of pedagogical and

technical competencies — as proposed by the

professional, interpersonal, and intrapersonal

knowledge model (Côté & Gilbert, 2009;

Quinaud et al., 2022) — can taekwondo

guarantee quality teaching that preserves its

traditional values while responding to the

contemporary scientific-sport demands of

modern sports training.

Acknowledgement

To the Diversity, Health, Education and Sport

Research Group (DISAED), code: 045-GI-DI-

2024, of the Central University of Ecuador, for

the technical and methodological support for the

development of this study.

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Declaration of no conflicts of interest: The

authors of this manuscript offer confidential

criteria that the presented report is original and

do not offer criteria of conflicts with the norms

of the RIAF Journal.

Declaration of author participation:

Pablo Anthony Rendón-Morales: Developed

the theoretical systematization on the study

variable and the empirical instruments applied.

Lisbet Guillen Pereira: Developed the

methodology and conducted the management of

research approval in the UCE Ethics Committee.

Richard Manuel Manangón Pesantez: Performed

the tabulation of instruments and their statistical

results.

Juan Carlos Ramírez Rivera: Performed the

statistical processing of data and analysis of

results.

Carlos Alberto Reinoso Cueva: Developed the

discussion and summary of the research.

Jesus Amador García: Conducted the search in

scientific article databases and summary of

inferences from the results. Developed the

conclusions of the study.